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Programmed learning (or programmed instruction) is a research-based system which helps learners work successfully. The method is guided by research done by a variety of applied psychologists and educators.〔Lumsdaine A.A. 1963. Instruments and media of instruction. In N.L. Gage (ed) ''Handbook of research on teaching''. Chicago: AERA and Rand McNally, 583–682.〕 The learning material is in a kind of textbook or teaching machine or computer. The medium presents the material in a logical and tested sequence. The text is in small steps or larger chunks. After each step, learners are given a question to test their comprehension. Then immediately the correct answer is shown. This means the learner at all stages makes responses, and is given immediate knowledge of results.〔Margulies S. & Eigen L.D. 1961. ''Applied programmed instruction''. New York: Wiley.〕〔 It is rather interesting that Edward L. Thorndike wrote in 1912: "If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print".〔Thorndike E.L. 1912. ''Education: a first book''. New York: Macmillan, 165.〕〔McNeil S. A hypertext history of instructional design. ()〕 Thorndike, however, did nothing with his idea. The first such system was devised by Sidney L. Pressey in 1926.〔Pressey S.L. 1926. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores and teaches. ''School & Society'' 23, 3736.〕〔Pressey, S.L. 1927. A machine for automatic teaching of drill material. ''School & Society'' 25, 544–552.〕 "The first.. (machine ) was developed by Sidney L. Pressey... While originally developed as a self-scoring machine... () demonstrated its ability to actually teach".〔Hilgard E.R. 1966. Learning & the technology of instruction. Chapter 16 in Hilgard E.R. & Bower G.H. 1966. ''Theories of learning''. 3rd ed, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, p554561 Programmed learning.〕 == Later developments == In World War II, with largely conscript armies, there was great emphasis on training. What was learnt influenced education and training after the war. One of the main methods was the use of film as a group training method. Research on the effectiveness of training films was done extensively.〔Lumsdaine A.A. 1947. Experimental research and the improvement of teaching films. ''Educational Screen'' 26, 254/5.〕〔Hovland C.I; Lumsdaine A.A. & Sheffield F.D. 1949. ''Experiments on mass communication''. Princeton University Press.〕〔Lumsdaine A.A. 1953. Audio-visual research in the U.S. Air Force. ''AV Communication Review'' 1, 76–90.〕〔May M.A. & Lumsdaine A.A. 1958. ''Learning from films''. Yale University Press.〕 In one account, Lumsdaine comments that research on films went on "from about 1918 to the present" (meaning 1962).〔Lumsdaine A.A. 1962, published 1965. Experimental research on instructional devices and materials. In Glaser R. (ed) ''Training research and education''. New York: Wiley, 252; 256.〕 A few conclusions stood out from the research. One was that films were great at giving overviews of a situation or an operation. However, they were less successful at getting over the details. Some general features of film (and, later, television) stand out. One is that a film goes at its own pace. Another is that no specific responses or activities are required from the viewer. A third is that the audience is varied, sometimes hugely varied. This gives clues to ways of improving instructional films. In a 1946 experiment at Yale University, questions for students were put between segments of a film on the heart and circulation, with correct answers given after students had responded (knowledge of results). This added significantly to the amount learnt from the film. Lumsdaine commented that showing the version with questions and answers was as effective as showing the film twice, and faster.〔612〔Lumsdaine A.A; May M.A. & Hadsell R.S. 1958. Questions spliced into a film for motivational and pupil participation. In May M.A. & Lumsdaine A.A. ''Learning from films''. Yale University Press, 72–83.〕 The connections between this experiment and those of Pressey were obvious. Active responses by learners and helpful feedback on the activities were now seen as critical elements in any successful system of learning. Pressey's work had been half forgotten, but it was now recognised as significant.〔Pressey's work is reprinted in Lumsdaine A.A & Glaser R. (eds) 1960. ''Teaching machines and programed learning I: a source book''. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「programmed learning」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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